Charles Baudelaire’s “Correspondances”

Charles Baudelaire’s “Correspondances” (1857), from Les Fleurs du Mal, is the foundational text of French Symbolism. It introduces two primary dimensions of meaning: vertical correspondences (the physical world acting as a sanctuary/sign post to spiritual, ideal realities) and horizontal correspondences (synesthesia, where sensory experiences echo and translate into one another).  

1. "Correspondences" (Correspondences)

Stanza 1: The Sanctuary of Nature

> "Nature is a temple where living pillars"

* Explanation: Baudelaire frames the natural world not as raw wilderness, but as a sacred, architectural space—like a cathedral. The "living pillars" are trees, standing like columns supporting the sky.

> "Sometimes let slip confused words;"

 * Explanation: Nature speaks, but not in plain human language. Its messages are subtle, muffled, and mysterious—whispers that require intuition rather than logic to understand.

> "Man walks through forests of symbols"

 * Explanation: Humanity navigates a physical world where every object (a tree, a storm, a flower) is actually a "symbol" representing a deeper spiritual reality.

> "Which watch him with familiar glances."

 * Explanation: Instead of man observing nature, nature actively observes man. The "familiar glances" suggest an innate, subconscious connection between human consciousness and the natural universe.

Stanza 2: The Unity of Senses (Synesthesia)

> "Like long echoes that blend from afar"

 * Explanation: Sensory inputs do not remain separate; they resonate together over time and space, merging into a single harmonious wave.

> "In a deep and shadowy unity,"

 * Explanation: Beyond our fragmented daily perception lies a single, mysterious spiritual unity. It is "shadowy" because it cannot be fully illuminated by intellect alone.

> "Vast as the night and vast as the light,"

 * Explanation: This underlying spiritual truth encompasses everything—from dark, subconscious depths ("night") to bright, conscious awareness ("light").

> "Perfumes, colors, and sounds answer one another."

 * Explanation: The core definition of synesthesia: one sense triggers or corresponds to another. A smell corresponds to a sound, which corresponds to a color.

Stanzas 3 & 4: Dualities of Perception

> "There are perfumes fresh as the skin of infants,"

> "Sweet as oboes, green as prairies,"

 * Explanation: Baudelaire illustrates synesthesia directly: scent (perfume) is linked to touch (infant skin), sound (oboes), and visual color/texture (green prairies). These represent pure, innocent, and refreshing aspects of existence.

> "—And others, corrupt, rich, and triumphant,"

* Explanation: Here, Baudelaire shifts to the darker, heavier side of his aesthetic (The Flowers of Evil). Some scents are decadent, complex, and intoxicating—symbolizing passion, mortality, and the transcendent beauty found in decay.

> "Having the expansion of infinite things,"

> "Like amber, musk, benzoin, and incense,"

 

 * Explanation: Heavy, exotic resinous scents have a quality that seems to transcend physical space, filling room and mind alike, stretching toward the infinite.

> "Singing the transports of the mind and senses."

 * Explanation: These complex sensations elevate ("transport") human soul and consciousness into higher spiritual states.

 

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Line-by-Line Critical Analysis

Stanza 1 (The Vertical Connection: Physical World & Metaphysics)

Line 1: La Nature est un temple où de vivants piliers

"Nature is a temple where living pillars..."  

• Analysis: Baudelaire opens with a grand metaphor equating nature to a sacred, architectural sanctuary. The "living pillars" (trees) bridge the earthly ground and the divine sky. This introduces vertical correspondence: the physical, natural world is an organized, sacred space reflecting a higher spiritual realm.  

Line 2: Laissent parfois sortir de confuses paroles;

"...sometimes let slip confused words;"

• Analysis: Nature is not silent; it speaks, but its language is fragmented and veiled ("confuses"). Humanity no longer inherently understands this primordial tongue, setting up the poet's crucial role as a visionary interpreter or decipherer of hidden truths.

Line 3: L'homme y passe à travers des forêts de symboles

"Man passes through forests of symbols"  

• Analysis: Humanity wanders through existence surrounded by signs. The "forest" imagery suggests both natural vastness and a sense of being lost, establishing that objects, sounds, and sights in the material world are symbolic markers pointing beyond themselves.  

Line 4: Qui l'observent avec des regards familiers.

"Which look at him with familiar glances."

• Analysis: A striking inversion of agency occurs: human beings do not merely examine nature; nature gazes back. The "familiers" (familiar) glances imply a deep, unconscious kinship or forgotten intimacy between the human soul and the natural world.  

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Stanza 2 (The Horizontal Connection: Synesthesia & Unity)

Line 5: Comme de longs échos qui de loin se confondent

"Like long echoes that mingle from afar"

• Analysis: The poem shifts to sensory interplay. Sound waves traveling from a distance blur and merge into one another, symbolizing how individual human perceptions originate from a singular, distant source.  

Line 6: Dans une tenebreuse et profonde unité,

"In a dark and profound unity,"

• Analysis: Baudelaire defines the ideal realm as a single, underlying reality. The adjective tenebreuse (dark/shadowy) emphasizes that this ultimate truth is mysterious, inaccessible to mere logic, and felt rather than rationally dissected.  

Line 7: Vaste comme la nuit et comme la clarté,

"Vast as the night and as the light of day,"  

• Analysis: A classic Baudelairean paradox balancing opposites. The underlying unity encompasses all dualities—darkness and light, obscurity and clarity—showing that the spiritual realm contains all contradictions in harmony.  

Line 8: Les parfums, les couleurs et les sons se répondent.

"Perfumes, colors, and sounds correspond [answer one another]."  

• Analysis: The central thesis of synesthesia (horizontal correspondences). Senses do not operate in isolated silos; olfactory, visual, and auditory sensations interact and echo one another to express the single unity of creation.  

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Stanza 3 (The Purity of Innocence: Gentle Synesthesia)

Line 9: Il est des parfums frais comme des chairs d'enfants,

"There are perfumes fresh as the skin of children,"  

• Analysis: Baudelaire grounds the abstract theory of synesthesia in concrete images. Here, scent (perfumes) is directly linked to touch and tactile warmth (chairs d'enfants), evoking purity, innocence, and gentleness.  

Line 10: Doux comme les hautbois, verts comme les prairies,

"Sweet as oboes, green as meadows,—"  

• Analysis: A rapid, masterclass demonstration of multisensory fusion:
• Smell connects to Hearing (sweet as oboes—woodwind sound).  
• Smell connects to Sight (green as meadows—visual landscape).  

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Stanza 4 (The Duality of Decadence & The Infinite)

Line 11: —Et d'autres, corrompus, riches et triomphants,

"—And others, corrupt, rich and triumphant,"  

• Analysis: The tone abruptly shifts from pastoral innocence to decadent intensity. Baudelaire rejects a purely idyllic view of nature/art; corruption and decay hold an equally potent, rich, and victorious aesthetic power.  

Line 12: Ayant l'expansion des choses infinies,

"Having the expansion of infinite things,"  

• Analysis: Unlike gentle scents that remain bounded, these intense, corrupted scents possess the power to expand outward into infinity, breaking down the limitations of human perception.  

Line 13: Comme l'ambre, le musc, le benjoin et l'encens,

"Like ambergris, musk, benzoin, and incense,"  

• Analysis: A catalogue of heavy, resinous, exotic, and sacred aromas. Historically associated with both sacred rituals (encens) and sensual, bodily allure (musc), they synthesize the sacred temple of Stanza 1 with human sensuality.

Line 14: Qui chantent les transports de l'esprit et des sens.

"Which sing the transports of the soul and senses."  

• Analysis: The sonnet culminates in a unified climax. The word transports signifies ecstasy and spiritual elevation. True revelation does not require transcending or denying the physical body; rather, spiritual elevation (esprit) is reached through the heightening of physical sensations (sens).  

Critical Analysis: “Correspondances” by Charles Baudelaire

1. Introduction

Published in Charles Baudelaire’s landmark 1857 collection Les Fleurs du Mal (The Flowers of Evil), “Correspondances” is considered the manifesto of French Symbolism. The sonnet outlines Baudelaire's groundbreaking aesthetic theory: that the physical world is a system of symbols reflecting a higher spiritual reality, and that sensory experiences do not exist in isolation, but interweave in a unified harmony.

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2. The Structure and Form

The poem is written as a classic Petrarchan sonnet (fourteen lines divided into two quatrains and two tercets). Baudelaire uses this traditional form to present a tightly structured philosophical argument:

• The Octave (Stanzas 1–2): Establishes the macrocosmic, theoretical foundation—nature as a sacred temple of symbols and the vast, underlying unity of creation.
• The Sestet (Stanzas 3–4): Moves to concrete, microcosmic examples, using sensory imagery to demonstrate synesthesia.

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3. Key Thematic Dimensions

A. Vertical Correspondences (Nature as a Temple of Symbols)

In the opening stanza ("La Nature est un temple..."), Baudelaire frames nature as an architectural, living cathedral where trees act as "living pillars."

• The Symbolist Forest: Mankind wanders through a "forest of symbols." Physical objects are not merely material items; they are sacred hieroglyphs pointing to a hidden, ideal world.
• Inversion of Agency: The symbols observe man with "familiar glances." This suggests a forgotten, primal connection between human consciousness and the universe, positioning the poet as a visionary cipher-reader who decodes these subtle messages.

B. Horizontal Correspondences (Synesthesia)

The second stanza introduces synesthesia—the interplay of sensory perceptions:

"Perfumes, colors, and sounds answer one another."

Baudelaire suggests that individual senses resonate like distant echoes merging into a single "dark and profound unity." Hearing a sound can evoke a specific color, or a scent can evoke a tactile feeling, reflecting the ultimate oneness of creation.

C. The Aesthetic Duality of the Sestet

In the final stanzas, Baudelaire contrasts two realms of sensory experience:

1. Purity and Innocence (Stanza 3): Scents that are "fresh as the skin of children," sweet as oboes, and green as meadows. These represent harmonious, delicate, and pastoral aspects of nature.
2. Decadence and Transcendent Corruption (Stanza 4): Scents that are "corrupt, rich, and triumphant" (such as musk, ambergris, and incense). Reflecting the broader ethos of Les Fleurs du Mal, Baudelaire asserts that decay and corruption possess a potent aesthetic power capable of expanding into the infinite ("l'expansion des choses infinies").

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4. Major Poetic Devices & Imagery

• Metaphor & Personification: Nature is personified as a temple whispering "confused words" and gazing back at humanity with familiar eyes.
• Paradox: The underlying spiritual reality is described as "vast as the night and as the light of day," showing that the ideal realm holds all earthly opposites in balance.
• Synesthetic Imagery: Cross-modal descriptions linking smell to touch (child's skin), sound (oboes), and sight (green meadows).

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5. Conclusion

“Correspondances” is a revolutionary text that shifted poetry away from Romantic sentimentality and Realist literalism toward modern Symbolism. By presenting the universe as an interconnected web of sensory and spiritual meaning, Baudelaire redefines the role of the poet—not merely as a storyteller, but as a priest-interpreter who uses language to bridge the gap between the material world and the infinite.

1. Primary Imagery

• Architectural & Natural Imagery:
• "Living Pillars" (vivants piliers): Baudelaire frames nature as a cathedral, turning ordinary trees into sacred architectural columns. This imagery elevates the natural world from a simple landscape to an organized, holy sanctuary where physical forms support a higher realm.
• "Forests of Symbols" (forêts de symboles): The forest is transformed into a dense landscape of signs. Rather than literal trees, humanity navigates through physical phenomena that contain hidden, deeper meanings.
• Sensory Imagery (Synesthesia):
• Olfactory Imagery: Scents are categorized into two contrasting groups—pure scents ("fresh as the skin of children") and decadent scents ("corrupt, rich, and triumphant").
• Auditory & Visual Fusion: Baudelaire merges sound and sight by comparing scents to the sweet tones of oboes ("doux comme les hautbois") and the vibrant visual of green meadows ("verts comme les prairies").

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2. Central Symbols

• The Temple / Cathedral:
• Symbolism: Represents the sacred architecture of the universe. It symbolizes the idea that the physical world is an earthly reflection of a divine, metaphysical reality.
• The Forest:
• Symbolism: Symbolizes both the vast complexity of life and the human condition of wandering through existence surrounded by spiritual truths that are difficult to decode.
• The Familiar Glances (regards familiers):
• Symbolism: Personifies nature, symbolizing a forgotten, primal kinship between human consciousness and the universe. It suggests that the physical world is aware of man and holds an innate connection to the soul.
• Heavy Resins (Amber, Musk, Benzoin, Incense):
• Symbolism: These rich, intoxicating aromas symbolize the aesthetic power of decay, passion, and the transcendent infinite. Incense specifically bridges human sensory pleasure with spiritual elevation ("transports of the soul and senses").

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3. Literary Significance

Through these symbols and synesthetic images, Baudelaire establishes the foundation of Symbolist aesthetics. Imagery in "Correspondances" is not merely descriptive or decorative; it functions as a deciphering tool, demonstrating that sensory experience is a gateway to understanding the underlying unity of existence.

 

 

UNIVERSITY WITS

Origins of the Name: The phrase "University Wits" was not used during the 16th century. It was coined in the 19th century by the English journalist, critic, and literary historian George Saintsbury in his book A History of Elizabethan Literature (1887) to classify this distinct group of university-educated writers.

• The defining features of the University Wits can be broken down into their distinct stylistic, thematic, and structural characteristics:
• 1. Secular Professionalism & Commercial Writing
• First Professional Playwrights: Unlike earlier writers who relied on noble patrons or church appointments, they were among the first to earn a living solely by writing for the commercial London public stage and printing presses.
• Bohemian Lifestyle: Lacking aristocratic backgrounds, they lived as intellectual freelancers, leading vibrant, unconventional, and often controversial lives in Elizabethan London.
• 2. Classical Humanism & Academic Rigor
• Greco-Roman Influences: Having studied at Oxford or Cambridge, they infused English drama with classical mythology, Latin rhetoric, and structural models from Seneca (tragedy) and Terence/Plautus (comedy).
• Elevated Diction: They replaced simple, folk-oriented dialogue with sophisticated, poetically dense language rich in classical allusions and intellectual wit.
• 3. Versification & Poetic Innovation
• Mastery of Blank Verse: Christopher Marlowe popularized flexible, dramatic unrhymed iambic pentameter ("Marlowe's mighty line"), turning it into the standard medium for English drama.
• Prose & Euphuism: John Lyly pioneered "Euphuism"—a highly structured prose style marked by parallel phrasing, antithesis, alliteration, and ornate rhetoric.
• 4. Complex Characterization & Heroic Themes
• The Renaissance Hero: Shifted focus away from allegorical morality characters (e.g., Everyman) toward psychologically complex, highly ambitious mortals driven by singular desires (power, knowledge, wealth, or revenge).
• Human-Centric Conflict: Explored tragic flaws, tragic hubris, individualist ambition, and moral ambiguity rather than simple religious moralizing.
• 5. Genre Expansion & Hybridity
• Revenge Tragedy: Thomas Kyd established the revenge tragedy genre with The Spanish Tragedy, introducing ghosts, feigned madness, play-within-a-play mechanics, and graphic climax violence.
• Romantic & Pastoral Comedy: Blended high-society courtly wit, romantic intrigue, and idyllic settings, laying the groundwork for Elizabethan romantic comedies.
• Chronicle History Plays: Transformed dry historical records into dynamic, dramatic narratives celebrating English identity and political intrigue.

6. Blending High Art with Popular Entertainment

• Mass Appeal: Combined academic erudition with sensational elements—slapstick comedy, supernatural events, violence, and popular folklore—to entertain both educated courtiers and ordinary theatergoers..

 

• The University Divide:
• Cambridge Graduates: Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, and Thomas Nashe.
• Oxford Graduates: John Lyly, George Peele, and Thomas Lodge.
• The Associate: Thomas Kyd lacked a university degree (attending the Merchant Taylors' School), but his stylistic alignment, close working relationship with Marlowe, and classical learning group him naturally alongside them.

 

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Key Members

Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593)

Pioneering Blank Verse: Prior to Marlowe, English blank verse was rigid, monotonous, and formal. He introduced variable pauses, rich diction, and dramatic tempo—dubbed "Marlowe's Mighty Line" by Ben Jonson.

The Renaissance Hero: His plays feature overreaching, ambitious anti-heroes driven by singular passions—knowledge (Doctor Faustus), geopolitical power (Tamburlaine the Great), or wealth and revenge (The Jew of Malta).

Thematic Legacy: Explored humanism, religious skepticism, Machiavellian politics, and individualist ambition versus divine law.

Thomas Kyd (1558–1594)

Architect of Revenge Tragedy: The Spanish Tragedy (c. 1587) became one of the most popular plays of the Elizabethan era.

Dramatic Conventions Introduced: Established the foundational tropes of revenge drama: the haunting ghost, a protagonist feigning madness, betrayal among nobility, graphic violence, a play-within-a-play to expose guilt, and a bloody climax where almost all main characters die.

The Ur-Hamlet: Kyd is widely believed to have written a lost version of Hamlet (the Ur-Hamlet), which Shakespeare later adapted.

John Lyly (c. 1554–1606)

Euphuism & Prose Style: Author of Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit (1578), which popularized "Euphuism"—a prose style characterized by elaborate antithesis, symmetrical phrasing, alliteration, and heavy classical and mythological allusions.

Courtly Drama: Plays like Endymion and Campaspe brought high-society wit, courtly banter, and romantic idealism to the stage, directly influencing Shakespeare’s early comedies like Love's Labour's Lost and A Midsummer Night's Dream.

 

• Robert Greene (1558–1592)

Romantic Comedy & History Hybrids: In Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay and James IV, Greene successfully merged comic subplots, romantic love stories, folklore, and historical settings, establishing a blueprint for Elizabethan romantic drama.

Literary Feud & Critical History: Remembered for his posthumous pamphlet Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit (1592), where he criticized Shakespeare as "an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers," resenting that an actor without a university degree was competing with university-educated playwrights.

George Peele (c. 1556–1596)

Poetic Pageantry: Renowned for his lyric poetry, pastoral elements, and decorative verse in plays like The Arraignment of Paris.

Satire & History: The Old Wives' Tale offered a satire of popular romantic tales, while Edward I helped build the genre of the English history/chronicle play.

Thomas Nashe (1567–c. 1601)

Picaresque Fiction & Pamphleteering: Primarily a prose writer and satirist. His prose narrative The Unfortunate Traveller; or, The Life of Jack Wilton (1594) is considered one of the earliest predecessors to the English picaresque novel.

Invective Wit: Famous for his fierce, witty pamphlet wars with Gabriel Harvey and his collaboration with Marlowe on Dido, Queen of Carthage.

Thomas Lodge (c. 1558–1625)

Prose Romance: Authored Rosalynde: Euphues Golden Legacie (1590), written in Lyly’s euphuistic style. It served as the direct source material for Shakespeare’s plot, characters, and setting in As You Like It.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Playwright	Key Works	University	Key Characteristics & Style
Christopher Marlowe	• Doctor Faustus • Tamburlaine the Great • The Jew of Malta • Edward II	Cambridge	• Pioneered "Marlowe's Mighty Line" (flexible dramatic blank verse). • Focused on overreaching, ambitious Renaissance anti-heroes. • Explored themes of power, knowledge, and moral hubris.
Thomas Kyd	• The Spanish Tragedy • Soliman and Perseda • Ur-Hamlet (lost)	Non-University (Associate)	• Architect of Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy. • Popularized ghost figures, feigned madness, and play-within-a-play mechanics. • Known for suspenseful plotting and bloody climaxes.
John Lyly	• Endymion • Campaspe • Gallathea	Oxford	• Master of courtly, romantic comedies. • Creator of "Euphuism"—ornate prose with antithesis, parallelism, and mythological allusions. • Influenced Shakespeare's witty dialogue and romantic conventions.
Robert Greene	• Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay • James IV • Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit	Cambridge	• Blended chronicle history, romance, folklore, and comic subplots. • Created well-developed female protagonists. • Famously penned the earliest critique of Shakespeare ("upstart Crow").
George Peele	• The Old Wives' Tale • The Arraignment of Paris • Edward I	Oxford	• Rich in pastoral beauty, lyricism, and decorative poetic flair. • Blended folklore, satire, and English chronicle history. • Heavy use of pageantry and visual theatrical spectacle.
Thomas Lodge	• Rosalynde (source for As You Like It) • The Wounds of Civil War	Oxford	• Wrote pastoral prose romances and historical drama. • Heavily influenced by Lyly's Euphuistic style. • Blended classical heroic drama with romantic adventure.
Thomas Nashe	• Summer's Last Will and Testament • Dido, Queen of Carthage (co-authored)	Cambridge	• Known primarily for sharp satirical prose and picaresque fiction. • Characterized by vigorous, inventive, and aggressive language. • Focused on social critique and intellectual debate.